آمار
| تعداد نشریات | 54 |
| تعداد شماره‌ها | 2,450 |
| تعداد مقالات | 34,982 |
| تعداد مشاهده مقاله | 13,882,030 |
| تعداد دریافت فایل اصل مقاله | 6,200,997 |
«ضمیمه»بحران‌های زیست‌محیطی در پایان تاریخ صفوی: فروپاشی اکولوژی پادشاهی ایران در اوایل دوران مدرن (1666-1722م/ 1076-1134ق) | ||
| تاریخ اسلام | ||
| دوره 25، شماره 4 - شماره پیاپی 100، دی 1403، صفحه 197-250 اصل مقاله (1.55 M) | ||
| نوع مقاله: مقاله پژوهشی | ||
| شناسه دیجیتال (DOI): 10.22081/hiq.2024.77282 | ||
| نویسندگان | ||
| جیمز اسپیر1؛ جیمز گوستافسون* 2؛ عباس احمد وند3؛ بهناز کیباخی4 | ||
| 1استاد گروه سیستم‌های زمین و محیط زیست، دانشگاه ایالتی ایندیانا، تره هوت، ایندیانا ۴۷۸۰۹، ایالات متحده آمریکا | ||
| 2استاد گروه تاریخ، دانشگاه ایالتی ایندیانا، تره هوت، ایندیانا ۴۷۸۰۹، ایالات متحده آمریکا | ||
| 3عضو هیئت علمی گروه تاریخ و تمدن ملل اسلامی دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران | ||
| 4دانش‌آموخته دکترای تاریخ اسلام، دانشگاه الزهراء، تهران، ایران | ||
| تاریخ دریافت: 12 تیر 1403، تاریخ بازنگری: 20 شهریور 1403، تاریخ پذیرش: 17 مهر 1403 | ||
| چکیده | ||
| در تاریخ جهان، قرن هفدهم میلادی، دوران تغییر و تحول بود. این قرن با ظهور جنبش‌های اجتماعی در پاسخ به خشکسالی‌های گسترده، قحطی، بیماری، جنگ و جابه‌جایی‌جمعیت در جهان بر اثر تغییرات اقلیمی، شناخته می‌شود. بااین‌همه، تاریخ‌دانان هنوز ایرانِ عصر صفوی (1501-1722م /906-1134ق) را در زمره آن «بحران گسترده» قرار نداده‌اند. این مقاله که به صورت مشترک توسط یک تاریخ‌نگار محیط زیست و یک اقلیم‌شناس نوشته شده است، پس از بازنگری منابع اوّلیه دوران صفوی و شواهدی از حلقه‌های درختی، استدلال می‌کند که بحران گسترده زیست‌محیطی در اواخر قرن هفده میلادی (قرن یازده هجری قمری)، به فروپاشی اکولوژی پادشاهی صفوی کمک کرده است. کاهش منابع و اُفت جمعیت، زمینه‌ساز فروپاشی شبکه‌های سرزمینی و سرانجام سقوط صفویان به دست گروه کوچکی از مهاجمان افغان در سال 1722 میلادی (1134ق) شد. این مقاله درنهایت، به بررسی پیوند ایران با روندهای جهانی زیست‌محیطی در این دوره می‌پردازد و نشان می‌دهد که چگونه شرایط محلی و نقش انسان، به بروز بحران شدید زیست‌محیطی در ایران منجر شد | ||
| کلیدواژه‌ها | ||
| تغییرات آب‌وهوایی؛ گاه‌شناسی درختان؛ تاریخ محیط زیست؛ قحطی؛ پادشاهی صفوی | ||
| عنوان مقاله [English] | ||
| Environmental Crises at the End of Safavid History: The Ecological Collapse of the Iranian Monarchy in the Early Modern Period (1666–1722 A. C/1076–1134 A. H) | ||
| نویسندگان [English] | ||
| James Speer1؛ James Gustafson2؛ abbas ahmadvand3؛ Behnaz Kibakhi4 | ||
| 1Department of Earth and Environmental Systems, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN 47809, USA | ||
| 2Department of History, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN 47809, USA | ||
| 3Faculty member, Department of History and Civilization of Islamic Nations, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran | ||
| 4Ph. D student in Islamic History, Al-ZahraUniversity, Tehran, Iran | ||
| چکیده [English] | ||
| In the history of world, the 17th century was the era of change and evolution. It was characterized by the emergence of social movements in response to the widespread droughts, famine, disease, war, and global population displacements due to the climate change. However, the historians had not yet included Safavids of Iran (1501–1722 CE/906–1134 AH) in that “widespread crisis.” Reviewing the primary sources from Safavid period and the evidence from the tree rings, this article written jointly by an environmental historian and a climatologist, argues that a widespread environmental crisis in the late seventeenth century contributed to the ecological collapse of the Safavid kingdom. The decline in the resources and population led to the collapse of territorial networks and the eventual fall of the Safavids to a small group of Afghan invaders in 1722 A. D (1134 A. H). Finally, the article examines Iran’s connection to the global environmental trends during this period, showing how the local conditions and the humans' role led to the emergence of a severe environmental crisis in Iran. | ||
| کلیدواژه‌ها [English] | ||
| Climate change, tree chronology, environmental history, famine, Safavid kingdom | ||
| مراجع | ||
|
باستانی پاریزی، محمدابراهیم، 1362، سیاست و اقتصاد عصر صفوی، تهران: انتشارات صفی‌علی شاه.
خاتون‌آبادی، عبدالحسین، 1352ش، وقائع السنین والأعوام یا گزارش‌های سالیانه از ابتدای خلقت تا سال 1195 هجری، تهران: کتاب‌فروشی اسلامیه.
ساروی، محمد فتح‌الله‌بن‌محمدتقی، ۱۳۷۰ش، تاریخ محمدی: احسن التواریخ، تهران: مؤسسه انتشارات امیرکبیر.
شاملو، ولی قلی‌بن‌داود، 1373ش، قصص الخاقانی، تهران: سازمان چاپ و انتشارات وزارت فرهنگ و ارشاد اسلامی.
قزوینی، ابوالحسن‌بن‌ابراهیم، 1366ش، فوائد الصفویة؛ تاریخ سلاطین و امرای صفوی پس از سقوط دولت صفوی، تهران: مؤسسه مطالعات و تحقیقات فرهنگی.
کتابی، احمد، 1383ش، قحطی‌های ایران، تهران: دفتر پژوهش‌های فرهنگی.
Amanat, Abbas, 2019, Iran: A Modern History, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Baer, Gabriel,1997, Waqf as a Prop for the Social System (Sixteenth–Twentieth Centuries), Islamic Law and Society 4, no. 3. Beck, Lois, 1986, The Qashqai of Iran, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Braudel, Fernand, 2009, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, 2 vols., Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Chardin,John, 1811, Voyages du Chevalier Chardin en Perse et Autres Lieux de l’Orient, Paris: LeNormant. Christensen,Peter, 2016, The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environment in the Middle East, 500 BC–AD 1500 (New York: I. B. Tauris). Cole, Juan, 1985, Shiʾi Clerics in Iraq and Iran, 1722–1780: The Akhbari-Usuli Conflict Reconsidered, Iranian Studies,18, no. 1. Crisis, Collapse, Militarism and Civil War: The History and Historiography of 18th Century Iran, ed. Michael Axworthy,2018, New York: Oxford University Press. Crosby, Alfred W., 2015, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. De Planhol, Xavier, Kāriz iii. Economic and Social Contexts, Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 15, no. 6. DuMans, Raphael, 1890, Estat de la Perse en 1660, Paris: Ernest Leroux. Fagan, Brian,2000, The Little Ice Age: How Climate Made History, 1300–1850, New York: Basic Books. Father Krusinski, The History of the Late Revolutions of Persia: Taken from the Memoirs of Father Krusinski, Procurator of the Jesuits at Ispahan, vol. 1, London: J. Pemberton, 1733. Flohr,P., D. Fleitmann, E. Zorita, A. Sadekov, H. Cheng, M. Bosomworth, L. Edwards, W. Matthews, and R. Matthews,2017, Late Holocene Droughts in the Fertile Crescent Recorded in a Speleothem from Northern Iraq, Geophysical Research Letters 44. Floor, Willem M., 2000, The Economy of Safavid Persia, Wiesbaden: Reichert. Floor, Willem, 2001, Safavid Government Institutions, Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda. Floor, Willem, Fiscal System iv. Safavid and Qajar Periods, Encyclopaedia Iranica, online edition: https://iranicaonline.org/articles/fiscal-system-iv-safavid-and-qajar-periods. Floor, Willem,1999, A Fiscal History of Iran in the Safavid and Qajar Periods, 1500–1925, New York: Bibliotheca Persica Press. Garthwaite, Gene R.,2008, The Persians, New York: Wiley. Gholami, V., M. Ahmadi Jolandan, and J. Torkaman, 2017, Evaluation of Climate Change in Northern Iran during the Last Four Centuries by Using Dendroclimatology, Natural Hazards 85. Gustafson, James M., 2015, Kirman and the Qajar Empire: Local Dimensions of Modernity in Iran, 1794–1914, New York: Routledge. Hindu Shah Astarabadi Firishtah, Muhammad Qasim, 1972, and Alexander Dow, The History of Hindostan, vol. 3, London: John Murray. Hobsbawm, Eric, 1954, The Crisis of the 17th Century II, Past & Present 6, no. 1. Hobsbawm, Eric, 1954, The General Crisis of the European Economy in the 17th Century I, Past & Present 5, no. 1. Hodgson, Marshall, 1974, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, vol. 2, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Husain, Faisal H., 2021, Rivers of the Sultan: The Tigris and Euphrates in the Ottoman Empire (New York: Oxford University Press. Kaempfer, Engelbert, 1948, Am Hofe des persischen Grosskönigs, 1684–1685 Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Kazemi, Ranin, 2017, The Black Winter of 1860– 61: War, Famine, and the Political Ecology of Disasters in Qajar Iran, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 37, no. 1. Kazemi, Ranin,2016, Of Diet and Profit: On the Question of Subsistence Crises in Nineteenth-Century Iran, Middle East Studies 52, no. 2. Khazeni, Arash ,2009, Tribes and Empire on the Margins of Nineteenth-Century Iran, Seattle: University of Washington Press. Lambton, A. K. S., 1953, Landlord and Peasant in Persia: A Study in Land Tenure and Land Administration, London: Oxford University Press. Lewis, Bernard,2002, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (New York: Oxford University Press. Lockhart, Laurence,1958, The Fall of the Safavi Dynasty and the Afghan Occupation of Persia, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. London, Jennifer A., 2011, The Circle of Justice, History of Political Thought 32, no. 3. Madani,Kaveh, Amir Agha Kouchak, and Ali Mirchi,2016, Iran’s Socio-Economic Drought: Challenges of a Water Bankrupt Nation, Iranian Studies 49, no. 6. Matthee, Rudi, 2010, Was Safavid Iran an Empire? Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 53. Matthee, Rudi, 2012, Persia in Crisis: Safavid Decline and the Fall of Isfahan, New York: I. B. Tauris. Matthee, Rudi, 2015, The Safavid King Who Was Crowned Twice: The Enthronement of Safi Mirza as Shah Safi II in 1077/1666 and as Shah Sulayman in 1078/1668, in Mapping Safavid Iran, ed. Nobuaki Kondo, Tokyo: Tokyo Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. Matthee, Rudi,2006, The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 1600–1730, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Matthee,Rudi, Solayman I, Encyclopaedia Iranica, online ed., 2015, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ solayman-1. Matthee,Rudi, Soltan Hosayn, in Encyclopaedia Iranica, online ed., 2015, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/soltan-hosayn. McLachlan, Keith, 1988, The Neglected Garden: The Politics and Ecology of Agriculture in Iran, London: I. B. Tauris. McNeill, J.R.,2010, The State of the Field of Environmental History, Review of Environments and Resources 35. Melville, Charles,1984, Meteorological Hazards and Disasters in Iran: A Preliminary Survey to 1950, Iran 22. Merchant, Carolyn, 2010, Ecological Revolutions: Nature, Gender, and Science in New England, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. Mikhail, Alan, 2008, The Nature of Plague in Late Eighteenth Century Egypt, Bulletin of the History of Medicine 82, no. 2. Mikhail, Alan, 2016, Climate and the Chronology of Iranian History, Iranian Studies 4. Minorski, Vladimir F., 1980, Tadhkirat Al-Mulūk: A Manual of Safavid Administration, circa 1137/1725, Cambridge, MA: E. J. W. Gibb Memorial Trust. Mitchell, Colin P.,2012, The Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran: Power, Religion and Rhetoric, London: I. B. Tauris. Morgan, David, 1988, Medieval Persia, 1040–1797, Harlow, UK: Longman. Muhammad, Abdulla, 1995, Climatic Fluctuation and Natural Disasters in Arabia between Mid-17th and Early 20th Centuries, GeoJournal 37, no. 1. Newman, A.J.,2006, Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire, New York: I. B. Tauris. Okazaki, Shoko, 1986, The Great Persian Famine of 1870–71, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 49, no. 1. Olearius, Adam,2000, Isfahan, in The Voyages and Travels of the Ambassadors from the Duke of Holstein, to the Great Duke of Muscovy, and the King of Persia, trans. John Davies, Ed.Lance Jenott., London: Dring and Starkey, 1662. Parker, Geoffrey, 2008, Crisis and Catastrophe: The Global Crisis of the Seventeenth Century Reconsidered, American Historical Review 113, no. 4. Parker, Geoffrey,2013, Global Crisis: War, Climate Change and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Richards, John F., 1993, Mughal India (Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge Press. Roemer, H.R,2008, The Safavid Period, in Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 6, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Ross, Corey, 2019, Ecology and Power in the Age of Empire: Europe and the Transformation of the Tropical World, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Rota, Giorgio, 1999, The Man Who Would Not Be King: Abuʾl Fath Sultan Muhammad Mirza Safavi in India, Iranian Studies 34, no. 4. Savory, Roger,1980, Iran under the Safavids, New York: Cambridge University Press. Schiebinger, Londa L., 2009, Plants and Empire: Colonial Bioprospecting in the Atlantic World, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Seyf, Ahmad, 2010, Iran and the Great Famine, 1870–72, Middle East Studies 46, no. 2. Streusand, Donald, 2011, Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals,Philadelphia: Westview Press. The Cambridge History of Iran 6,2008, The Timurid and Safavid periods, Edited by Peter Jackson and Lawrence Lockhart, Cambridge: Cambridge university press. The International Tree-Ring Databank is housed on the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) website (ncdc.noaa.gov/data-access/paleoclimatology-data/datasets/tree-ring). Trevor-Roper, H.R.,1967, The Crisis of the Seventeenth Century, New York: Harper & Row. Wakeman, Frederic, 1986, China and the Seventeenth-Century Crisis, Late Imperial China 7, no. 1. White, Sam, John Brooke, and Christian Pfister,2018, Climate, Weather, Agriculture, and Food, in The Palgrave Handbook of Climate History, London: Palgrave Macmillan. White, Sam,2011, The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire, New York: Cambridge University Press. White, Sam,2018, A Cold Welcome: The Little Ice Age and Europe’s Encounter with North America, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
| ||
|
آمار تعداد مشاهده مقاله: 87 تعداد دریافت فایل اصل مقاله: 126 |
||